Electrostatic Ion Thrusters

Electrostatic Ion Thrusters Abstract The ion thrusters belong to the electric propulsion category and are used by modern spacecraft either to maintain their position relative to the Earth or to complete deep space missions. Their main characteristic is the high specific impulse which involves an efficient use of the propellant, a mandatory requirement for space activities where weight is the main restriction. The thrust is generated by the acceleration of ionised gas at very high velocities. The mechanism used to achieve the acceleration distinguishes these propulsive devices in two main categories: electrostatic and electromagnetic. In the first type, a potential difference accelerates the ions through the Coulombs force. In the second type the interaction of the ionised gas with a magnetic field generates the thrust through the Lorentzs force. This paper focuses on the analysis of the main features and architectures of the electrostatic ion thrusters. In the first part, the reasons why they are used for space applicat ions are explained. Afterwards, the propulsors physic and the working principles are illustrated with considerations on their advantages and limitations. Eventually, an overview of the field of applications and future design innovations is presented. Keywords: Ion thrusters, Hall thrusters, Feep Nomenclature EPElectric Propulsion ESAEuropean Space AgencyNASANational Aeronautics and Space AdministrationJAXAJapan Aerospace Exploration AgencyGEOGeostationary Orbit LEOlow Earth Orbit STPStationary Plasma Thruster Electrostatic ion thrusters are a major area of interest within the field of space applications. Thanks to the constant heightened of electrical power available in modern spacecraft the last two decades have seen a growing proliferation of this technology. The concept of electric propulsion has been theorized for the first time by Robert H. Goddard in 1906[1] and Herman Oberth in 1929[2] but it was not until 1948 that the research efforts on ion thrusters implementation on a spacecraft began. A considerable contribution was given by the work of Ernst Stuhlinger[1]. Early experimental tests started during the 50s and leaded to the first successful space test in 1964 with the SERT-1[3]. With the end of the Cold War and the Space Race the interest in these devices diminished but just for a short period. Today in fact ion thrusters are essential for a wide range of space missions. In this paper, after a brief explanation of the importance of high impulse thrusters for space applications, the three main architectures of electrostatic ion thrusters are presented. For each category the paper will look into the working principles, evolution over the years, applications in space mission and future development of the technology. The essential reason of the development of the ion thruster for space applications is the extremely high efficiency in the utilisation of propellant mass and the corresponding reduction of the launch costs, a critical parameter for the mission feasibility. Moreover this technology permits to performs deep-space missions otherwise inaccessible to conventional chemical rockets[4]. The reason lies in the Tsiolkovskys equation which can be derived from the Newtons law of momentum conservation: Where and are the final and the initial spacecraft mass respectively, is the velocity change and is the exhaust velocity. The equations shows that must be comparable to to have a significant fraction of final mass. Thrusters that provide a large propellant exhaust velocity compared to the mission will have a propellant mass that is only a small fraction of the initial spacecraft wet mass. Space mission are classified by the amount of velocity change needed for the orbital maneuvers, planetary mission for example requires velocity above 10 km/s[4]. Table 1:Characteristic velocity increments Mission [km/s] 1 year station keeping 10 LEO GEO 3.5 Earth Mars (return) 14 Earth Venus (return) 16 Earth Jupiter (return) 64 Earth Alpha Centaury (return) 30000 The exhaust velocity is directly proportional to the specific impulse, which can be seen as a measure of the propellant acceleration efficiency. The formulation is: where in the mass flow and the sea-level gravitational acceleration. Typical values of different propulsive systems are listed in table 2. It can be seen that the necessary velocity augmentation is much larger than the typical chemical rocket exhaust velocity, for this reason they are not suitable for this kind of missions. The latter is restricted by the intrinsic energy of the propellant, thermal limitations of the materials and frozen flow losses[4]. For electric thrusters the propellant and the energy source are independent and the specific impulse depends only on the energy deposed into the plasma[5]. Another key strength of ion thrusters is the high thrust efficiency: where is the available electric power and is the thrust. The equation shows that defined a large specific impulse leads to a very low thrust level which is a typical characteristic of ion engines. As a consequence this kind of thrusters requires a large amount of propulsion time, actually the opposite of what happens with chemical propulsion, characterised by high thrust levels over a short time. Table 2: Representative specific impulse and thrust levels of different propulsive systems [2] Propulsive system [s] Thrust [N] Liquid monopropellant 200 250 0.01 100 Liquid bipropellant 300 450 0.01 10^7 Solid propellant 200 300 1 10^6 Hybrid propellant 250 350 1 10^6 Ion Thrusters 2000 5000 Hall Thrusters 1500 2500 Feep Thrusters 5000 0.001 Electrostatic ion engines overcomes the limitations on the attainable exhaust speeds of conventional chemical rockets by the acceleration of the propellant through an electrostatic field. They can be divided into three main categories: Gridded Ion Thrusters, Hall Effect Thrusters and Field-Emission Electric Propulsion. In each of those the same main functions are performed: generation of the plasma, ions acceleration and ions neutralization. This configuration is the most fully developed and studied concept of electric propulsion [4]. The standard design comprises a metal ionisation chamber surrounded by magnets and three grids at the exit position. Acc elettroni 4.1 Ionisation and extraction Plasma is a ionised gas where approximately an equal number of positively charged protons and negatively charged electrons coexists[6]. The generation of positive particles requires an energy equivalent to the first ionization energy of the propellant. This amount of energy has an impact on the maximum attainable efficiency of the thruster that according to[5] can be written as: where is the ionisation energy and is the ion mass. The equation displays that the higher the ion mass and exit velocity (hence specific impulse) the higher the efficiency while decreases it. For this reason propellants with a low specific ionisation energy (alkali metals and noble gases) are preferred. The lower limit for the utilisation on these type of thrusters is 2000 s. Modern ion thrusters uses Xenon as a propellant since it has a large atomic weight and it easy to store because it is an inert gas, although Mercury and Caesium would be more performant propellants since their mass is much larger and the ionisation energy slightly greater, the higher toxicity prevents their use in experimental tests. Propellant Ionisation potential [eV] Atomic mass [AMU] Caesium 3.9 132.9 Mercury 10.4 200.6 Xenon 12.8 131.3 Krypton 14.0 83.8 Hydrogen 15.4 2.0 There are two mechanisms to create the plasma: the electron-bombardment and the relatively recent frequency excitation. In the first type electrons emitted from a thermionic or a hollow cathode collide with the propellant gas and generates positive ions. The electrons tend to reach the anode but the presence of an axial magnetic field generated by the magnets outside of the chamber causes a spiral path that improves their confinement and the ionisation efficiency. When an electron ionises an atom its energy decreases and when it drop below a certain level the magnetic field is not able to confine it anymore and it is extracted by the anode. In the second type the ionisation chamber is surrounded by a coil that induces an axial electro-magnetic field that ionises the gas. This method has some advantages such as the elimination of the cathode which improve the thruster life and a larger range of mass flow variation [7]. The number of ions created is equal to the number of electrons captured by the anode and an equilibrium condition is established. The plasma potential is slightly higher than the one of first grid, as a consequence the generated ions are attracted towards the exit of the chamber. In this region a sheet of the debaey length causes a natural curvature of the electric field and permits the extraction of the ions. Sheets debay 4.2 Acceleration The extraction of the ions from the ionisation chamber and the acceleration are performed by an electric field applied by three perforated grids. The first one acts as a screen while the second and the third accelerate and decelerate the gas respectively. The design of the grids is crucial and is based on a trade-off among performance, life and size. The grid holes diameter is defined by conflicting targets, it must be enough small to retain the unionised gas but maximised to provide an high grid transparency to extract the maximum possible number of positive ions[5]. An high potential difference is applied between the first and the second grid which accelerates the ions: where and are the ion charge and mass respectively and is the potential difference. The potential of the intermediate grid is negative in order to avoid the back-streaming of the electrons from the neutralizer cathode. The presence of positive particles only, during the acceleration, leads to an essential upper limit in the ion current density that can by provided and hence to the thrust density (N/m^2) of this devices with adverse consequences on their size[7]. The limit is dictate by the Child-Langmuir law[8]: that involves a thrust per unit of area of: where A is the cross area of the jet, d is the distance between the grids and is the electric constant. The formula demonstrates that to have compact device heavy ions and an high voltage are needed while the gap between the grids must be very small and this constitutes a thermal, electrical and structural challenge. Adopting Xenon and the maximum electric potential difference with nowadays technology level (typical value is 1000 Volt) the value which is very low. The exhaust speed achieved in this case, and hence the specific impulse, is excessively high considering the actual space mission requirements. Since just lowering the potential difference would reduce the already small value of thrust density a third deceleration grid is added[1]. Placing the acceleration grid at a negative potential the problem of the excessive velocity is solved without compromising the thrust density. The value of the required specific impulse determines the value of the third grid potential[5]. The single charge nature of the beam causes the repulsion between the accelerated ions which tend to diverge from the axial direction. Since the repulsion force is proportional to the beam diameter the latter is subdivided into small portions with order of magnitude equals to the grids distance. Since the electric field generated by the first grid is convergent the grid can be designed in such a way that particles trajectory became axial due to the repulsive force inside the beam. The grid geometry and the ions trajectory have a crucial roles in determining the thruster life, for this reason they are made of heavy metals such as Molybdenum, Graphite composites have been recently introduced[7]. Even though the grid are accurately designed, a secondary current of low energy ions hits the accelerator grid causing erosion. This current is caused by the Charge-Exchange Ionisation: some neutral atoms of propellant escaping from the ionisation chamber are struck by beam ions and a charge exchange happens[5]. The resultant low energy ions are accelerated towards the intermediate grid with enough energy to consume it over a long period. This process leads to a distortion of the grid holes that increases the damage until a structural failure of the grid occurs or the back streaming of electrons is not prevented anymore. 4.3 Neutralisation If the positive charged ions beam exiting from the thruster is not neutralised the thruster acquires a negative potential and causes the ions back-streaming. The neutralisation is achieved by the emission of a negative current by an hollow cathode positioned outside of the ions streams. Since the potential difference in this case is very low (electrons dont need to be accelerated) and the distance is an order of magnitude larger than the grid gap, the Childs law prevents the emission of a pure electrons current. The solution is the utilisation of a plasma bridge, a global neutral plasma with an electrons current inside. The hollow cathode is constituted by a tube of refractory materials and an orifice plate at the downstream end[9]. Inside the tube an insert made of tungsten is impregnated with a low work-function metal. The cathode is wrapped by an heater that allows electrons emission through thermionic effect when temperature reaches 1000ÂÂ °C[9]. Xenon is fed into the tube and electrons emitted from the insert are extracted by a keeper electrode downstream of the orifice. 4.4 Evolution of the technology and future development The first ion engine flight was the demonstrative mission Space Electric Rocket Test (SERT 1) in 1964[3], followed in 1970 by the SERT 2 whose two mercury thrusters achieved 2000 and 3700 hours of operations respectively providing 300 restarts[10]. The first use of gridded ion thrusters adopted for station keeping for commercial applications has been the XIPS-13 in 1997 for the PAS-5 (PanAmSat-5) communications satellite[5]. The subsequent generation of gridded ion engine, NSTAR, was developed by NASA JPL and Boeing. This thruster equipped the Deep Space 1 in 1998[11], a demonstration spacecraft that reached an asteroid and a comet. It provided 16000 hours of operation during the mission and over 40,000 hours of life testing[5]. Hundreds of papers have been published on its design and performance. In 1999 an evolution of the XIPS-13, the XIPS-25, was first lunched on a Boeing 702 Satellite[12]. This second generation is capable of providing orbit raising other than station keeping and momentum control. To date these thruster have been used for station keeping on Boeing 702 class satellites for more than 10 years, and 68 are currently operating in orbit on 17 spacecraft[5]. The next model used for station keeping was lunched on the telecom satellite Artemis in 2001 by the ESA. It used two T5 and two RIT thruster developed by Astrium[13]. The satellite reached a GEO orbit thanks to the ion thrusters used as a primary propulsion for recovery the chemical stage failure. In 2003 JAXA lunched the Hayabusa mission which equipped with four ion thrusters collected samples from an asteroid and returned to Earth in 2010[14]. Later in 2007 the Dawn[ mission of NASA was lunched to study two protoplanets in the asteroids belts, Vesta and Ceres, it has been the first time that a spacecraft orbited around two different solar system bodies, it would have been impossible without ion engines[15]. In 2009 the Gravity Field and Steady-State Ocean Circulation Explorer (GOCE) mission was lunched to study the variations of Earth gravitational field[16]. The key component of the mission were two ion thrusters for drag compensation. A new challenging mission named Bepi-Colombo is planned for October 2018 by a collaboration between ESA And JAXA[17]. The aim is the exploration of Mercury and will use four QinetiQ T6 ion thrusters. Another gridded ion thruster available in near future will be the NASA Evolutionary Xenon Thruster (NEXT)[17], Glenn Research Center manufacture d the test engines core ionization chamber, and Aerojet Rocketdyne designed and built the ion acceleration assembly[18]. A long duration test(LDT) was initiated in 2005 and was voluntarily terminated in 2014 after more than 50000 hours of operation and almost 1 ton of Xenon consumed. Post-test inspection highlighted the readiness of the thruster for space use[19][20]. It has been proposed for several future missions[21]. The first two flight units will be available in early 2019. Name Power [Kw] [s] T [mN] SERT 1 1.4 4900 28 XIPS 13 0.33 2570 18 NSTAR 0.5-2.3 3100 20-95 XIPS 25 4.5 3800 165 RIT 4.3 3-5000 150 T5 0.27-0.65 3-3500 10-25 T6 5.2 3500 40-200 NEXT 0.5-7 4200 237 The Hall thrusters are direct competitors of the gridded ion thrusters, even if they have a lower efficiency and specific impulse the thrust density is many times greater since both ions end electrons are accelerated and the Childs law is not a limit. The system is based on a fundamental effect discovered in 1879 by Edwin H. Hall[22], he showed that in presence of a perpendicular electric and magnetic field an electric current flows perpendicular to both. This phenomenon is exploited for the ionisation and the acceleration of the propellant. 5.1 Working Principles The ionisation chamber is axisymmetric, enclosed in two concentric cylinders. A radial magnetic field is applied through permanent magnets or solenoids, at the entrance of the chamber is situated a metallic anode from which the propellant is injected. At the cylinder end an hollow cathode emits an electrons beam that is divided into two parts. About 60-80% of the electrons are used to neutralise the positive ions ejected from the chamber, the remaining are trapped by the magnetic and the electric fields at the chamber exit and constitute a virtual plasma cathode[7]. The direct flows of the electrons towards the anode is prevented by the Hall effect which causes a spiral trajectory of the electrons. The propellant unleashed at the chamber entrance moves towards the electrons region and is ionised. Then the resultant electric field accelerates the ions. The long residence time of the electrons in the annular chamber, due to the magnetic confinement, makes the ionisation very efficient. Even if the magnetic field is determinant for the thruster operation the acceleration is achieved by a stationary electric force. The magnetic field that confines the electrons, which peaks at the exit, affects the ions trajectory causing a disturbance tangential torque that must be compensated and an high beam divergence angle of about 40ÂÂ ° that reduces the thrust efficiency and may cause electrostatic charging and interference to the satellite communications. The ionisation is much more efficient than in the gridded ion thrusters thanks to the lower ionisation energy requested and permits to achieve satisfactory efficiency 50-60% even with a relative low specific impulse. The considerable complexity of the plasma dynamic due to the presence if the magnetic and the electric field within the thruster causes fluctuations in the electron density that could cause severe damages, for this reason the electric potential is limited to 350 Volts. 5.2 SPT and TAL variants On the basis of the different materials that constitutes the cylinder wall in contact with the plasma Hall thrusters are divided into Stationary Plasma Thrusters (SPT), that are characterised by insulating walls made of boron nitride and silica compound (BN-SiO2), and Thruster Anode Layer (TAL) which have a conductive one[23]. Since the walls are continuously hit by some electrons and consecutively emits other electrons because of the secondary electron emission (SEE) effect, if the wall are metallic the resultant quantity of electrons is larger, the electric field is more intense and the potential drop occurs in a shorter distance. The result is more compact architecture with higher thrust density. The power loss are also related to life are strongly influenced by wall interactions. For SPT thrusters a significant amount of their power is lost on the dielectric channel walls due to electron bombardment. The metallic walls in TAL thrusters gather a smaller electron current since they have the same potential of the cathode which rejects the electrons and they have a small exposed area to the plasma, which limits the amount of ion and power lost to these surfaces. On the other hand the shorter chamber raises the intensity of the discharge current on the anode because the magnetic confinement is less effective [7]. 5.3 Evolution of the technology and future development The first Hall-Effect thruster to operate in space was the SPT-50 aboard the Soviet Meteor spacecraft in 1971 and was mainly used for satellite stabilization. Starting from that year more then 140 Hall thruster have been used in space[24]. Subsequently Hall engine of different power and size were developed with the introduction of the SPT-70 and SPT-100 in 1982. With their introduction in the west after the fall of the Berlin Wall in 1989 lot of research have been carried out by United States, France, Italy and Japan. The first US mission that adopted this technology was the demonstrator STEX spacecraft using D-55 TAL Hall Thrusters manufactured in Russia[25]. In 2004 the ESAs satellite SMART-1 adopted the Snecma PPS-1350-G, with a design similar to the SPT-100, to reach the lunar orbit from GTO[26]. The mission finished in 2006 with a controlled collision on the Moons surface. The probe covered more than 100 million kilometres, consuming just 82 kg of propellant. The joint venture between the Busek Company and Aerojet Rocketdyne leads to the development of the BTP-4000 designed for US military spacecraft as well as commercial satellites. In 2000 an agreement between Aerojet and Lockheed Martin Space System Company (LMSSC) developed the Hall Thruster Propulsion System (HTPS) for the next generation LMSSC geosynchronous spacecraft, this program adopted the BPT-4000 because of the ability to operate in a large range of powers and thrust modes allowing both station keeping and orbit raise[18]. Flight test qualifications and improvements lead to the discovery of the magnetic shielding phenomenon[27]. The achievement of a particular magnetic topology that essentially blocked the chamber wall erosion after 6000 hours, the developed erosion model enabled the possibility to predict andextent the engine lifetime. This thruster, used on the Advanced Extremely High Frequency (AEHF) communications satellites constitutes the currently most powerful Hall en gine in operation. In 2009 AR and Lockheed Martin developed the XR-12, the first Hall thruster in the 10kW class, it was intended for the US Air Forces TSAT constellation but after the cancellation of the program its use for future missions have been studied by NASA. In the recent years high power and thrust Hall engine have been investigated thanks to the increasing of the available spacecraft power. The consequent increase of thrust reduces the amount of time for the mission and permits a larger payload. In Europe Snecma developed the PPS-20k for the HiPER Project, an European project to study innovative electric propulsion technologies for future space transportation and exploration. In 2010 NASA promoted the Human Exploration Framework Team (HEFT) to investigate new technologies for a future human space exploration and high power Hall thrusters, thanks to the high power processing capabilities and extensive range of thrust levels, were chosen as a possible technology. The NASA-457Mv2 50-kW class, whose development started in 2004, has been tested during 2011 with satisfactory results. This model can be a potential point of start for future NASA exploration missions. Another step forward has been made with the development of the X3, a 100-kW class three-channel nested Hall thruster, designed by the Plasmadynamics and Electric Propulsion Laboratory (PEPL) at the University of Michigan, in collaboration with NASA and the Air Force Office of Scientific Research. Its performances up to 30 kW have been recently successfully tested and further measurements in order to analyse the complete operating envelopment up to 200 kW will be effectuated in the near future. Name Power [Kw]

Jade of Peony Essay -- Literary Analysis, Wayson Choy

We have all been in a situation where we have immigrated to a new country for different reasons regarding, better future, or education. In the book Jade of Peony, Wayson Choy describes a struggle of a Chinese family as they settle in Canada, with their new generation of kids born here, the family struggles to keep their children tied to their Chinese customs and traditions as they fit in this new country. The Chinese culture needs to be more open minded as it limits the future generation’s potential. Chinese culture limitations are seen through the relationship expectations, education, gender roles and jobs. Firstly, the relationship expectations in Chinese customs and traditions were strongly held onto. The daughters of the Chinese family were considered as a shame for the family. The sons of the family were given more honour than the daughters. In addition, some daughters were even discriminated. â€Å"If you want a place in this world ... do not be born as a girl child† (Choy 27). The girls from the Chinese family were considered useless. They were always looked down upon in a family; they felt as if the girls cannot provide a family with wealth. Chinese society is throwing away its little girls at an astounding rate. For every 100 girls registered at birth, there are 118 little boys in other words, nearly one seventh of Chinese girl babies are going missing (Baldwin 40). The parents from Chinese family had a preference for boys as they thought; boys could work and provide the family income. Due to Chinese culture preference to having boys, girls often did not have the right to live. In the Chinese ethnicity, the family always obeyed the elder’s decision. When the family was trying to adapt to the new country and they were tryin... ...king in the same field would. Therefore, the Chinese culture resists the new generations potential, due to the gender roles and jobs. In conclusion, Chinese cultures prohibition is seen, by observing the relationship expectations, education, and gender roles and jobs. The Chinese culture needs to be more cultivated as it constricts the newer generation’s capability in Canada. In Wayson Choy’s book The Jade of Peony, he describes the struggles of a immigrated Chinese family, as they try to follow two cultures to adjust in a new country like Canada, but still hang on to the old traditions of China, the kids of the family struggled as they tried to follow these two cultures. We have all been in a similar situation where we have immigrated to a new country to seek a better future where we have a better lifestyle and education, to help our family grow.

A Sense of Honor

In the story, (Webb, 1995) â€Å"A Sense of Honor† by author James Webb,   we learn about a tough guy by the name of Bill Fogarty who is a boxer and a first class senior midshipman who strives to become an officer in the Marine Corps.We also learn about another character by the name of Captain Ted Lenahan who mentors his midshipmen who has made his return to Annapolis as a tactical officer, after receiving injuries during the Vietnam War.Fogarty referred to himself as being â€Å"The best of the best† and his haughty and cruel nature was endured by those who feared him. Another interesting character; John Dean is a newcomer who complains, continuously which annoys his upper-classed, fellow Marines.Fogarty’s remembers his fellow midshipmen as the author tells us (p.1) â€Å"He passed a small snowman several of them had collaborated on the day before. The snowman wore a midshipman Dixie cup hat, properly rolled and boxed, properly faced forward on its head, just above its head, just above its nonexistent eyebrows.Its creators had awarded it the National Defense Medal, the red and yellow badge perfectly centered on the left side of the snowman’s chest.† Webb is able to convey that Fogarty wasn’t the tough and uncaring person that he tried so hard to be, but a man that could recall and cherish his memories with the men who had taught him so well.Harsh treatment and high demands were faced, continuously for underclassmen, which were hidden during this era and endured each day. We learn about hazing in that time period that was always evident and well-hidden.The author, himself, was an attendee of the Annapolis US Naval Academy, which takes place in the year 1968, graduating with high honors, and shares his story about his adventures and friends, as they train during the Vietnam War era to become Marine and Navy Corps officers.Webb’s story covers many areas, including the humor, hardships and lessons that can be lear ned while learning to become dedicated, disciplined and honorable United States leaders.Webb’s book teaches that true and virtuous leaders don’t come easily. The author also, enlightens us to what a difficult and trying time the Vietnam War era had been and how this war wasn’t fought with faceless men, but with those of integrity, determination and endured trying times to become successful officers.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Reference PageWebb, James. 1995. â€Å"A Sense of Honor†. US Naval Institute Press. P. 1

The Reasons For The American Revolution - 992 Words

Although the outcomes of the American Revolution only affected rich, white landowners at the time, it unknowingly provided the stepping stones that will later create equality and liberty for all people in the United States. This historic revolution provided a representative democracy in which future generations may pass or amend laws based on the people’s needs; a radical thought at the time. Other countries since then, such as France and Haiti, have followed the footsteps provided by America in creating their own representative democracy which has historical significance that a revolution that oppressed women and slaves in 1781 can influence other countries to become independent. The main reason for the American Revolution was to abolish tyranny, oppression and create a representative democracy which can be altered or abolished if deemed necessary by the people. 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Learn How to Pronounce German Words in English

While the proper way to pronounce some German terms in English may be debatable, this isnt one of them: Porsche is a family name, and the family members pronounce their surname PORSH-uh. Can you remember when the French automaker Renault still sold cars in North America? (If youre old enough, you may recall Renaults Le Car.) In the early days, Americans pronounced the French name ray-NALT. Just about the time that most of us had learned to say ray-NOH correctly, Renault pulled out of the U.S. market. Given enough time, Americans usually can learn to pronounce most foreign words correctly—if you dont include ​maitre d or hors-doeuvres.   Example of Another Silent-E Another â€Å"silent-e† example is also a brand name: Deutsche Bank.  It could be a carryover from the now entrenched mispronunciation of Germanys former currency, the Deutsche Mark (DM). Even educated English-speakers may say â€Å"DOYTSH mark,† dropping the e. With the arrival of the euro and the demise of the DM, German company or media names with â€Å"Deutsche† in them have become the new mispronunciation target: Deutsche Telekom, Deutsche Bank, Deutsche Bahn, or Deutsche Welle. At least most people get the German â€Å"eu† (OY) sound right, but sometimes that gets mangled as well. Neanderthal or Neandertal Most informed people prefer the more German-like pronunciation nay-ander-TALL. Thats because Neanderthal is a German word and German does not have the th sound of English â€Å"the.† The Neandertal (the alternate English or German spelling) is a valley (Tal) named for a German by the name of Neumann (new man). The Greek form of his name is Neander. The fossilized bones of Neandertal man (homo neanderthalensis is the official Latin name) were found in the Neander Valley. Whether you spell it with a t or th, the better pronunciation is nay-ander-TALL without the th sound.   German Brand Names On the other hand, for many German brand names (Adidas, Braun, Bayer, etc.), the English or American pronunciation has become the accepted way to refer to the company or its products. In German, Braun is pronounced like the English word brown (same for Eva Braun, by the way), not BRAWN. But youll probably just cause confusion if you insist on the German way of saying Braun, Adidas (AH-dee-dass, emphasis on the first syllable) or Bayer (BYE-er). The same goes for Dr. Seuss, whose real name was Theodor Seuss Geisel (1904-1991). Geisel was born in Massachusetts to German immigrants, and he pronounced his German name SOYCE. But now everyone in the English-speaking world pronounces the authors name to rhyme with goose.   Frequently Mispronounced Terms German in Englishwith correct phonetic pronunciation Word/Name Pronunciation Adidas AH-dee-dass Bayer bye-er BraunEva Braun brown(not 'brawn') Dr. Seuss(Theodor Seuss Geisel) soyce GoetheGerman author, poet GER-ta ('er' as in fern)and all oe-words Hofbrà ¤uhausin Munich HOFE-broy-house Loess/Là ¶ss (geology)fine-grained loam soil lerss ('er' as in fern) NeanderthalNeandertal nay-ander-tall Porsche PORSH-uh **Phonetic guides shown are approximate. English in Germanwith common German mispronunciation Wort/Name Aussprache airbag (Luftkissen) air-beck chatten (to chat) shetten corned beef kornett beff live (adj.) lyfe (live=life) Nike nyke (silent e) ornee-ka (German vowels)

Group Parent Child Interaction Therapy - 1510 Words

Research Study #2: Group Parent–Child Interaction Therapy Citation: Niec, L. N., Barnett, M. L., Prewett, M. S., Shanley Chatham, J. R. (2016). Group parent–child interaction therapy: A randomized control trial for the treatment of conduct problems in young children. Journal Of Consulting And Clinical Psychology, 84(8), 682-698. Previous Research: Parent management, based on behavioral principles, is considered the best treatment for children with oppositional defiant disorder (ODD) or conduct disorder (CD). Within the past 40 years there have been meaningful advances in this kind of treatment; however, now that the treatment exists the question is how does this kind of therapy reach enough families? Purpose of the Research: The†¦show more content†¦Children diagnosed with ODD or CD were randomly picked to participate in individual PCIT (n = 42) or group PCIT (n = 39). Procedures – Randomization was arranged by medication status. To clarify, children who were taking medication fell into individual PCIT, while children who were not on medication fell in group PCIT. Individual PCIT was held once a week for one hour. The principles and skills were presented during sessions using didactic, modeling, and role play, followed by four coaching sessions in which the therapist provided feedback to parents who were actively practicing the skills with their children. Parents practiced the skills at home during â€Å"play sessions† with their children (5 minutes a day during child–directed phase; 10–15 minutes a day during parent–directed phase). Group PCIT was held once a week for two hours, to allow sufficient time to coach each parent–chil d. As in individual PCIT, group PCIT used the same didactic and coaching sessions. Instruments/Measures: Parents completed standardized measures of their child’s conduct problems, parenting stress, and social support during intake, post–treatment, and 6–month follow–up. 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Case Study of Amelia Suffering through Asthma Free Sample

Question: Introduction State an Overview of the Patients condition and Identify the Two Priority Nursing Problems. Give a brief plan for the Essay topics. Answer: Introduction: Amelia is suffering through Asthma. Asthma is common problem in children. Amelia is exhibiting, signs and symptoms related to the Asthma. These signs and symptoms include increase in respiratory rate, less oxygen saturation, cough and wheezing. Amelia is also exhibiting rhinorrhea. Amelia is prescribed with medications like prednisolone as anti-inflammatory drug and salbutamol as bronchodilator. Supplemental oxygen also supplied to Amelia. Restricted airway and inflamed airway are the two problems identified in Amelia. These two problems occur in Amelia due to cascade of events comprised of allergy, inflammation, secretions of mediators, bronchoconstriciton and insufficient breathing. In the essay, these problems are correlated with the signs and symptoms of Amelia. For each problem, two interventions are discussed. These interventions would be helpful in improving condition of Amelia. Restricted airway problem: Amelia is having restricted airway problem. In asthma allergen induced and IgE dependent immune mechanism occurs. As a result, there is release of different mediators like histamine, leucotrines and prostaglandins. These mediators produce contraction of the airway smooth muscle. As a result there is occurrence of airway narrowing and bronchoconstriction. Airway inflammation is the predominant causes of the restricted airway. Due to restricted airway, there can be insufficient airway clearance, insufficient breathing, increased respiratory rate, hypoxia and decrease in the oxygen saturation level (Bonini and Usmani, 2015). In Amelia also there is evidence of increased respiratory rate. In children Amelias age respiratory rate should be between 20 30 breaths per minute. However, in case of Amelia respiratory rate was 34 breaths per minute. Oxygen saturation should be between 95 100 % in children. However, in case of Amelia it was 90 %. Amelia is associated with moist cough and this t ype of cough is called as productive cough. In productive cough phlegm is expelled from the respiratory tract. As a result, infective agents and foreign particles can be expelled out from the respiratory tract. Rhinorrhea is also observed in case of Amelia. Rhinorrhea is the condition in which there is considerable amount of mucus in the nasal cavity. Inflammation in the airways leads to secretions of different mediators in the respiratory tract (Patadia et al., 2014). These secretions get accumulated in the nasal cavity. Restricted airway and accumulation of these secretions in the airways and nasal cavity lead to the insufficient airway clearance. Insufficient airway clearance leads to insufficient breathing. Due to insufficient breathing there is less exchange of oxygen at the alveoli-capillary interface. As a result, there is less amount of oxygen in the blood, which need to be supplied to tissues and organs. Amount of oxygen carrying by blood is termed as the oxygen saturation level. In Amelia, this oxygen saturation level is less as compared to the normal level. It reflects her blood is carrying less amount of blood. As a result there is less supply of oxygen to the tissues and organs. Lung has compensatory mechanism for this insufficient oxygen. Lung starts breathing at faster rate to supply more amount of oxygen to the tissues and organs. Hence, increased respiratory rate was observed in Amelia (Mims, 2015). Sitting up posture intervention: For restricted airway problem, sitting up posture as a nursing intervention should be provided. This nursing intervention facilitates breathing in Amelia. Sitting up position can increase stretching of lungs and increase in surface area of lungs for gas exchange. In this position, lungs are flexible and chest expands to take more amount of air in. Goal of this nursing intervention is to facilitate maximum respiratory function in Amelia. By sitting up, maximum respiratory function can be achieved in Amelia without much physical efforts and by providing comfortable positioning (Kim et al., 2012). Pillow can be used to support back of the Amelia. More number of pillows should not be used because there is possibility of sink in the pillows. This can lead to restriction of chest movements. Slight movement of the foot of Amelia on the bed can be helpful in preventing her from going into the sleep. Comfortable position can be provided to Amelia by making her to sit on the edge of the bed or in an armchair. She can also seat on the table with her hands inclined towards the front side. Heels, ankles, sacrum and elbows are the pressure points in the body. Amelia should not give much stress on these parts of the body while sitting. Maximum expansion of the chest can be achieved by adjusting inclination against the wall, resting head on the raised arm and inclination over banister (Melam et al., 2014). Implementation of this nursing intervention is difficult in case of children. Children always try to keep sliding on the bed. In the literature, it is evident that, positioning of children in sitting upright position improved oxygen saturation level in adjuvant with standard asthma therapy. Sitting up in the upright position can be improved in children by educating Amelia and parents about importance of sitting up position. Salbutamol: Salbutamol was used in case of Amelia as a beta adrenergic agonist and bronchodilator. Salbutamol is the 2 adrenergic stimulant and it is having effect in long tem. Salbutamol produces its action by inhibiting release of mast cells. In restricted airway problem of Amelia, salbutamol can be effectively used because it produces bronchodilation effect and improves drainage of mucus in the airways (van Buul and Taube, 2015). Assessment of effect of salbutamol in case of Amelia should be evaluated within approximately 1 2 hours after administration of salbutamol. Assessment can be performed by tests like arterial blood gas (ABG) analysis and pulmonary function test (PFT). Nurse should perform evaluation of respiratory parameters in Amelia prior to after administration of salbutamol. Based on the outcome of after administration of salbutamol, modifications in the dose and frequency should be done. Nurse should monitor for the central nervous system (CNS) stimulation in Amelia because in children between age 2 6, there is possibility of CNS stimulation. CNS stimulation includes hyperactivity, excitement, nervousness and insomnia. Nurse should also monitor Amelia for signs and symptoms of fine tremor in figures, tachycardia and gastrointestinal tract (GI) symptoms. Nurse should educate Amelia and her parents about use of inhaler. Nurse should instruct them to avoid contact with eye. Nurse should advise them not to increase frequency of inhalations without consultation of the doctor. Salbutamol can induce dizziness or vertigo, hence precautions should be taken while taking salbutamol (Neininger et al., 2015). Inflamed airway problem: Second problem in case of Amelia is inflamed airway. Asthma is mainly disease of airway inflammation. In case of asthma, inflammation is the bodys reaction to allergens. Due to inflammation, bronchial tubes become swollen and narrowed. Inflammation also leads to release of different inflammatory mediators. Different inflammatory cells are responsible for inflammation in asthma like Th2 lymphocytes, mast cells, eosinophils, dendritic cells, epithelial cells, macrophases and resident cells of airway. Th2 cytokines such as IL-4, IL-5 and IL-13 are responsible for inflammation in asthma (Kim et al., 2016). There is also occurrence of edema of in bronchial tube as a result of progressive inflammation. There is more release of mucus in airways which results in the deposition of mucus plugs in the airways. This deposition of mucus in nasal cavity is termed as rhinorrhea which was observed in Amelia. This leads to the limitation of air passage through bronchial tube. This can result in dyspn ea and less oxygen saturation. In case of Amelia also, less oxygen saturation was observed. Deposition of mucus can produce cough in Amelia. This cough is for expelling deposited mucus. In case of Amelia also, moist cough observed. In acute stage, inflammation would not cause narrowing of bronchial tube, however persistent and chronic cough can lead to the narrowing of the bronchial tube. This narrowing of bronchial tube can be exaggerated by external stimuli like dust or cold air (Erjeflt, 2010). Trigger of inflammation lead to the cascade of events which lead to the dysfunctioning of the lung. Narrowing of the bronchial wall lead to insufficient breathing as a result there is rapid rate of breathing. In Amelia, rapid breathing rate was observed. Narrowing of bronchial tube leads to difficulty in the air passage. This leads to forcibly passage of air through narrow and constricted airways. This forceful passage of air gives whistling sound of exhaled air which is known as wheezing. Wheezing was also observed in case of Amelia (Chawes, 2011). Hydrocortisone: Hydrocortisone is a short acting steroid with both glucocorticoid and mineralocorticoid propertiese. Hydrocortisone can perform different functions like antiinflammation and immunosuppression. In case of Amelia, occurrence of asthma is mainly due to the inflammation. Hydrocortisone can be useful in treating this inflammatory phase of asthma. In asthma, Th2 medicated immune mechanisms can occur. Hydrocortisone can also be helpful in treating immune system disturbance in Amelia. Hydrocortisone can be useful in treating asthma in Amelia by stabilizing leukocyte lysosomal memebranes and inhibiting release of allergic substances. Hydrocortisone produces immunosuppression activities by modifying immune response to diverse stimuli, reducing antibody titers and suppressing hypersensitivity reactions. Hydrocortisone should be initiated in Amelia within one hour of occurrence of symptoms like cough and wheezing. Prednisolone, which is a corticosteroid, should be used in Amelia (Olin and Wechsl er, 2014). Prednisolone should be initiated with single 2 mg/kg dose. Maximum dose of prednisolone should 50 mg per day. In subsequent days, 1 mg/kg twice a day can be administered (Kravitz et al., 2011). If Amelia is suffering through acute severe wheezing, prednisolone should not be administered in Amelia to avoid its over use. Nurse should monitor blood pressure, weight, fluid and electrolyte balance and glucose level. Nurse also should monitor platelet count and white blood cells differential count in Amelia. Nurse should monitor her for hypocalcemia. Nurse should monitor Amelia for chest pain and fractures of long bones. Nurse should assess Amelia for susceptibility of infection. Nurse should advise family members of Amelia to supply high protein, calcium and vitamin D rich food. Nurse should monitor Amelia for behavioral and psychological aspects. There is possibility of mood changes and depression due to long term consumption of hydrocortisone. If Amelia is subjected to certa in stress due to surgery or injury, the nurse should adjust dose of hydrocortisone. Nurse should perform ophthalmic examination in Amelia, in case of long term administration of hydrocortisone. The 2015 Global Initiative for Asthma (GINA) guidelines identified hydrocortisone through inhalation route as the preferred treatment for Asthma (Zhang et al., 2014). Education as intervention: Another nursing intervention for inflamed airways of Amelia is education to Amelia and her parents. This intervention is important for Amelia and her parents because they might not have enough knowledge of Asthma. Nurse should tell Amelia about correct way of breathing and coughing. Nurse should tell her to take deep breath and cough for 2 3 times in a sequence. Nurse should tell her to use abdominal muscle for coughing. The nurse should tell her to change her position continuously during coughing. Nurse should tell Amelia and her parents to maintain hygienic condition. Because patients with Asthma are more susceptible for infection. Nurse should advise Amelia to wash her hands properly before eating. Nurse should also advise Amelia to wear gloves and facemask (Klok et al., 2015). Nurse should advise Amelia to keep herself away from the dust and allergens. Dust and allergens may exaggerate inflammation of airways. Nurse should advise Amelia to take more amounts of fluids. This fluid intake would be helpful in thinning mucus and its expulsion would be easy. Nurse should warn Amelia and her family members about the decrease in food intake. Hence, she should take food with more calories. This decrease in food intake might be due to continuous coughing and change in food taste due to inhalation of medications. Nurse should ask her to rinse her mouth after taking inhalation. Nurse should educate Amelia and her family members about proper consumption of prescribed medications. Parents should take care that Amelia should not miss single dose of medications. Nurse should educate Amelia and her parents about use of inhaler. Nurse should advise Amelia and her parents, not to change dose of inhalation without doctors consultation (VanGarsse et al., 2015; Young, 2011). Conclusion: Amelia is diagnosed with Asthma. Amelia exhibited symptoms related to the respiratory system. Form the symptoms exhibited by Amelia; it can concluded that, there is decline in lung function in Amelia. Restricted airway and inflamed airway are the two common problems associated with decline in lung function. Inflamed airway occurs due to the exaggerated response to allergens and restricted airway may occur due to augmented release of secretions in inflammation. Both these problems results in the insufficient breathing and dyspnea in Amelia. Sitting-up posture and salbutamol administration are the two interventions provided in case of restricted airway. Sitting-up posture helped Amelia for easy breathing and salbutamol was used as bronchodilator. Bronchodilators can reduce narrowness of restricted airway. Hydrocortisone administration and education to Amelia and her parents, are two interventions provided for inflamed airway. Hydrocortisone such as prednisolone was administered to Amel ia to reduce inflammation. Education was provided to Amelia and her parents to manage consequences of inflamed airway. In summary, identification of the problem and provision nursing intervention would be helpful in improving condition of Amelia. References: Bateman, E.D., Reddel, H.K., van Zyl-Smit, R.N., and Agusti, A. (2015). The asthma-COPD overlap syndrome: towards a revised taxonomy of chronic airways diseases? Lancet Respiratory Medicine, 3(9), 719-28. Bonini, M., Usmani, O.S. (2015). The role of the small airways in the pathophysiology of asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Therapeutic Advances in Respiratory Disease, 9(6), 281-93. Chawes, B.L. (2011). Upper and lower airway pathology in young children with allergic- and non-allergic rhinitis. Danish Medical Bulletin, 58(5), B4278. Erjeflt, J.S. (2010). The airway epithelium as regulator of inflammation patterns in asthma. Clinical Respiratory Journal, 4(1), 9-14. Kim, K., Byun, M., Lee, W., Cynn, H., Kwon, O., and Yi, C. (2012). Effects of breathing maneuver and sitting posture on muscle activity in inspiratory accessory muscles in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Multidisciplinary Respiratory Medicine, 7(1), 9. doi. 10.1186/2049-6958-7-9. Kim, H.Y., Umetsu, D.T., and Dekruyff, R.H. (2016). Innate lymphoid cells in asthma: Will they take your breath away? European Journal of Immunology, 46(4), 795-806. Kravitz, J., Dominici, P., Ufberg, J., et al. (2011). Two days of dexamethasone versus 5 days of prednisone in the treatment of acute asthma: a randomized controlled trial. Annals of Emergency Medicine, 58, 200-204. Klok, T., Kaptein, A.A., and Brand, P.L. (2015). Non-adherence in children with asthma reviewed: The need for improvement of asthma care and medical education. Pediatric Allergy and Immunology, 26(3), 197-205. Melam, G.R., Buragadda, S., Alhusaini, A., Alghamdi, M.A., Alghamdi, M.S., and Kaushal, P. (2014). Journal of Physical Therapy Science, 26(4), 591-593. Mims, J.W. (2015). Asthma: definitions and pathophysiology. International Forum of Allergy Rhinology, 5(l), S2-6. Neininger, M.P., Kaune, A., Bertsche, A., Rink, J., et al., (2015). How to improve prescription of inhaled salbutamol by providing standardised feedback on administration: a controlled intervention pilot study with follow-up. BMC Health Services Research, 15, 40. Olin, J..T, Wechsler, M.E. (2014). Asthma: pathogenesis and novel drugs for treatment. British Medical Journal, 349, g5517. doi: 10.1136/bmj.g5517 Patadia, M.O., Murrill, L.L., Corey, J. (2014). Asthma: symptoms and presentation. Otolaryngologic Clinics of North America, 47(1), 23-32. van Buul, A.R, Taube, C. (2015). Treatment of severe asthma: entering the era of targeted therapy. Expert Opinion on Biological Therapy, 15(12), 1713-25. VanGarsse, A, Magie, R.D., and Bruhnding, A. (2015). Pediatric asthma for the primary care practitioner. Primary care, 42(1), 129-42. Young, C. (2011). Patient education. Avoiding asthma triggers: a primer for patients. Journal of the American Osteopathic Association, 111(7), S30-2. Zhang, L., Prietsch, S.O., and Ducharme, F.M. (2014). Inhaled corticosteroids in children with persistent asthma: effects on growth. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, (7):CD009471. doi: 10.1002/14651858.